Vegetarians rely on plant based proteins such as soy protein or proteins found in beans. Rice protein, potato protein, pea protein and many other sources have received some attention in the media as well recently.
Of the plant based proteins soy is one of the most common proteins. It is a relatively high quality protein and can be found in many food products, including sports nutrition products. Depending on the article you read and often depending on what type of protein a company wants to sell, attractive theories are developed around each of these proteins.
There are claims that slow proteins are better than fast proteins and vice versa. In future articles we will discuss the evidence and what research has actually taught us about the role of these proteins for athletes.
If you want to find out the best types of protein, optimal amounts, or timing. Click here. Want to know more about nutrition for running. If you want to know more about supplements, the benefits and the risks. General sports nutrition topics can be found here. Asker Jeukendrup. Proteins: Milk, Whey, Casein, Soy and more.
Recent Posts See All. Each of the four different caseins may have a variety of numbers of phosphate groups attached through their serine or threonine residues.
Another source of variability in caseins is genetic polymorphism. Caseins are structurally classified as natively or intrinsically disordered proteins which is different from random coil conformation found in some globular proteins [ 76 , 77 ]. Caseins proteins possess very little three dimensional structure but possess some secondary structure [ 79 ].
Casein proteins are homologous in all the species as has been found by various protein and gene sequencing studies [ 80 ]. The proportion of various caseins varies widely. All species form colloidal casein micelles for the transport of calcium and phosphate. Casein micelles of most species appear quite similar at the ultra structural level.
Casein proteins are important nutritionally because of their high phosphate content due to which they bind significant quantities of calcium and also are rich in lysine which is an essential amino acid in humans. The properties of milk and various milk products mainly depend on proteins present in it and to some extent on other components like salts, fat, and lactose.
Caseins which possess an extraordinary high heat stability make the milk and other milk products highly stable even at higher temperature [ 61 ]. Mammalian milk contains casein micelles that help to provide adequate nutrients to the neonate and at the same time prevent any risk of pathological calcification or amyloidosis. The structural disorderness and the chaperonic property would have been evolutionarily selected to make these molecules ideally suitable to thrive under various environmental insults since the milk is secretory product.
It might be possible that that in addition to casein, many other milk proteins may also have chaperonic function. Identifying chaperonic function of other proteins present in milk will have many industrial and clinical insights. Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3. Help us write another book on this subject and reach those readers. Login to your personal dashboard for more detailed statistics on your publications.
Edited by Isabel Gigli. We are IntechOpen, the world's leading publisher of Open Access books. Built by scientists, for scientists. Our readership spans scientists, professors, researchers, librarians, and students, as well as business professionals. Downloaded: Abstract Mammalian milk is a complex fluid mixture of various proteins, minerals, and lipids, which play an important role in providing nutrition and immunity to the newborn.
Keywords Milk Casein Phosphoproteins calcium. Introduction It is now widely known that milk is a complex biological fluid secreted by mammals whose most important biological function is to supply nutrients for the nourishment of the offspring.
Electrostatic interactions There are many potential sites for strong ion bonding in apolar environment that might play a role in the stabilization of casein micelles. Whey proteins also include enzymes, hormones, growth factors, nutrient transporters, disease resistance factors and others. They also contain a large amount of sulphur containing amino acids.
Lactoglobulin is the most common whey protein by a large margin. What proteins are in milk? Biology Molecular Biology Basics Proteins.
Linica Uday. Mar 11, In addition, the antimutagenic potential of casein was assessed against different mutagens, including some food-related mutagens.
Casein showed the most antimutagenic activity against benzo[a]pyrene, N-methylnitrosourea, and nitrosated 4-chloroindole, and the least antimutagenic activity against sodium azide and N-nitroquinolineoxide Some studies indicate that casein might contribute to the beneficial effects of milk on oral health Kappa-casein k-casein may protect against dental caries by decreasing the activity of glucosyltransferase, a plaque-promoting enzyme produced by S.
A study in rats infected by mixed bacterial suspensions of Streptococcus sobrinus OMZ and Actinomyces viscosus Ny1 indicated that consumption of powdered milk micellar casein could reduce the formation of advanced dental fissure and smooth surface lesions, and inhibit colonization of Streptococcus sobrinus S. In another study whole casein was combined with a citric acid solution in order to assaying the impact of soft drinks on the hydroxyapatite dissolution rate.
Adding 0. Some investigators have studied the effect of casein on blood cholesterol. An initial reduction in plasma cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol LDL-C was observed in both diets In another crossover study, normolipidemic nonobese healthy men consumed 2 liquid-formula diets containing casein or soy protein.
In hypercholesterolemic subjects who consumed 2 doses of casein 30 or 50 g in the form of beverage, total cholesterol concentrations were reduced during 16 weeks Milk contains different bioactive components, including bioactive peptides with physiological functionality.
Peptides generated from milk include a variety of substances which are potent modulators of various regulatory processes in the body and exhibit multifunctional bioactivities. Biologically active peptides hidden within the intact milk proteins are released and activated by gastrointestinal digestion of milk, fermentation of milk by proteolysis starter cultures, or hydrolysis by proteolytic enzymes. Hydrolysis of whey proteins generates bioactive peptides.
Most of these peptides have not been characterized to the extent of casein-derived peptides. Recently, whey-derived peptides have received special attention, because of their preventive and therapeutic characteristics 14 , , Different therapeutic benefits of whey-derived bioactive peptides are discussed below. Peptides derived from the N-terminal region of LF have been investigated in order to identify sequences with potential antitumor activity.
Roy et al. The sequence corresponding to residues 17—38 of bovine LF showed the highest apoptotic activity in human leukemia cells HL Eliassen et al. Also, Lfcin displayed antitumor activity against MDA-MB breast cancer cells by inducing apoptosis and cytotoxic activity in-vitro and in-vivo against neuroblastoma cells by destabilization of the cytoplasmic and the mitochondria membranes Lfcin B could also inhibit angiogenesis mediated by vascular endothelial growth factor and fibroblast growth factor in mouse models, as well as to mediate antiproliferative andantimigratory activities against proangiogenic factor-induced human umbilical vein endothelial cells In-vitro studies suggest treatment with Lfcin B induced apoptotic death in several different human leukemia and carcinoma cell lines by stimulating the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis via the production of reactive oxygen species and activation of caspase-9 and caspase-3 In addition, it has been observed that bovine Lfcin can trigger mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis in Jurkat T-leukemia cells by cell membrane damage through binding to the cell membrane, increasing permeabilization of the cell membran, and the subsequent disruption of the mitochondrial membrane Whey includes several potent immunomodulatory peptides that are hidden within the intact structure of whey proteins A reduction in serum and intestinal IgE levels was also observed.
Prioult et al. These peptide sequences reduced lymphocyte proliferation and enhanced immunosuppressant interleukin production. Several studies have revealed the immunomodulary properties of Lfcin. Hydrolysis of bovine LF with pepsin produced some immunostimulatory and immunoinhibitory peptides. In addition, Lfcin B augmented the phagocytic activity of human neutrophils through direct binding to the neutrophils and opsonin-like activity LF-derived peptides have been identified to present antimicrobial properties.
The antibacterial features of enzymatic hydrolysates of bovine LF were investigated by Tomita et al. Hydrolysates prepared with cleavage of LF by porcine pepsin, cod pepsin, or acid protease from Penicillium duponti exerted intense antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli It was shown that Lfcin B inhibited or inactivated various ranges of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including E.
These sequences were effective against Gram-positive bacteria, while they presented weak activity against Gram-negative bacteria Releasedfragments revealed bactericidal activity against Gram-positive bacteria It has been recognized that in-vitro incubation of milk proteins with gastrointestinal protease, including pepsin, trypsin, and chymotrypsin, can yield a large number of fragments with ACE inhibitory activity. The ACE inhibitory peptides are produced during gastrointestinal transport.
Bacterial and plant proteinases can be applied to produce such peptides as well - Nurminen et al. Enzymatic cleavage of the whey protein by proteinase K released 6 potent ACE inhibitory peptides. These peptides possessed antihypertensive activity in SHR. Mullally et al. In another investigation, some ACE-inhibitory peptides were isolated by hydrolysis of bovine whey proteins with an enzyme combination, including pepsin, trypsin, and chymotrypsin, or with trypsin alone. In addition, enzymatic digestions of LF released some antihypertensive peptides with molecular masses lower than 3 kDa.
Of these peptides, 7 exerted ex-vivo inhibitory activity against ACE-dependent vasoconstriction. Casein, in either milk or dairy foods, is a main source of bioactive peptides. Casein-derived peptides reveal different bioactive roles Below, the therapeutic advantages of casein-derived bioactive peptides are discussed. According to various cytochemical studies, there is some evidence for the possible anticarcinogenic activity of casein-derived peptides. In-vitro examinations have indicated that casein-based peptides isolated after microbial fermentation of milk could protect against colon cancer through changing cell kinetics Kampa et al.
Moreover, purified peptides, corresponding to bioactive fractions of casein, showed modulatory effects on cell viability, proliferation, and apoptosis in various human cell culture models, including human peripheral blood lymphocytes, HL, polymorphonuclear leukocytes, and Caco-2 cells - Some experiments have been conducted to consider the effect of casein-derived bioactive peptides on immune function.
It was found that in-vitro digests of casein produced by peptidases of Lactobacillus rhamnosus inhibited protein kinase C translocation and downregulated IL-2 mRNA expression. These findings demonstrated in-vitro suppression of T cell activation by casein digests Hata et al.
GMP might have an indirect intestinal anti-inflammatory impact through enhancing host defenses against invading microorganisms GMP and its derivatives generated by peptic hydrolysis can stimulate proliferation and phagocytic activities of the human U macrophage-like cells There is some evidence regarding antimicrobial properties of casein-derived peptides. McCann et al. This fragment exhibited inhibitory activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
Kappacin, the monophosphorylated fragment Ser P k -casein -A f - , produced by endoproteinase Glu-C digestion of CPP, displayed inhibitory activity against S. Caseicidin, a defense peptide purified by chymosin hydrolysis of casein at neutral pH, showed inhibitory activity against staphylococci , Sarcina spp , B. The antimicrobial property of caseicins has been well demonstrated. Antibacterial and antiviral features of GMP have also been demonstrated.
The ability of GMP to inhibit binding of cholera toxin to normal Chinese hamster ovary cells was reported by Kawasaki et al. Furthermore, it showed similar inhibitory activity against E. GMP could also inhibit hemagglutination by 4 strains of human influenza virus at concentration ranges from 10 -2 to 10 - 3 Dosako et al. Milk-derived bioactive peptides such as CPP and GMP may be responsible for the cariostatic properties of cheese via suppressing the growth of cariogenic bacteria, concentrating calcium and phosphate in plaque, reducing enamel demineralization, and enhancing remineralization 25 , 89 , The anticariogenic impacts of CPPs have been demonstrated in animal and human experiments.
It was suggested that CPPs stabilized calcium phosphate by forming casein phosphopeptide-calcium phosphate complexes CPP-CP and increasing the uptake of calcium and phosphate by dental plaque - In addition, CPP and amorphous calcium phosphate ACP bind to plaque, providing a potential source of calcium within the plaque and decreasing the diffusion of free calcium.
Therefore, CPP-ACP can protect against dental caries by reducing mineral loss during a cariogenic episode and supplying a rich source of calcium for subsequent remineralization - Additionally, CPPs might exert an anticariogenic impact by competing with plaque-forming bacteria for binding to calcium Neeser et al.
Adhesion ability of S. Considerable research has been performed to investigate the impact of biologically active peptides obtained from casein on blood pressure. In a single-blind, placebo-controlled study with Japanese adults having high-normal blood pressure or mild hypertension, receiving a casein hydrolysate containing bioactive peptides for 6 weeks , led to significant reduction in systolic blood pressure from 1.
A study in normotensive and mildly hypertensive patients showed consumption of 10 gr of a tryptic digest of casein twice daily for a 4-week period had an antihypertensive influence It has been reported that casein-derived peptides by L.
In a placebo-controlled double-blind crossover study, consumption of a product containing casein-derived tripeptides Ile-Pro-Pro and Val-Pro-Pro and plant sterols acutely reduced blood pressure in individuals with mild hypertention Milk is the oldest and one of the most widely consumed nutritious foods worldwide.
It is highlighted as a source of high-quality proteins and one of the most important sources of bioactive peptides. Milk proteins have high nutritive value and remarkable medicinal properties. They are known as potential ingredients of health-promoting functional foods, and the dairy industry has already commercialized many milk proteins and peptide-based products which can be consumed as part of a regular daily diet.
They are consumed by infants, the elderly, and immune-compromised people. They are also consumed to maintain good health status and prevent diet-related chronic diseasessuch as obesity, cardiovascular disease, and cancer.
Milk-derived peptides are commonly ingested both in functional foods and drugs. They exhibit various well-defined pharmacological effects, for example, in the treatment of diarrhea casomorphins , hypertension casokinins , thrombosis casoplatelins , dental diseases, mineral malabsorption CPPs , and immunodeficiency immunopeptides. These findings introduce new perspectives in the nutritional and technological evaluation of milk products and encourage utilization of these substances for production of food and new health promoting products.
More studies related to the mechanisms by which these proteins exert their effects are required to achieve further substantial evidence. The authors confirm that this article content has no conflicts of interest. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Iran J Pharm Res. Find articles by Seyed Hossein Davoodi. Find articles by Roghiyeh Shahbazi. Find articles by Saeideh Esmaeili. Find articles by Sara Sohrabvandi. Find articles by AmirMohamamd Mortazavian. Find articles by Sahar Jazayeri.
Find articles by Aghdas Taslimi. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Received Jan; Accepted Jul. This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract Milk is an important component of a balanced diet and contains numerous valuable constituents.
Milk proteins Casein and whey protein are the major proteins of milk. Nutritional benefits Bovine milk protein is considered a high-quality, or complete protein, because it contains all 9 of the essential amino acids in proportions resembling amino acid requirements 3 - 4.
Therapeutic benefits Caseins and whey proteins differ in their physiological and biological properties. Table 1 Selected publications on health benefits of milk proteins.
Open in a separate window. Figure 1. Conclusion Milk is the oldest and one of the most widely consumed nutritious foods worldwide. Conflict of interest The authors confirm that this article content has no conflicts of interest.
References 1. Dairy chemistry and biochemistry. Introduction: classifying functional dairy products. Functional dairy products. Volume 1.
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